In the years following the New Orleans birth of jazz, the popularity of the music caused it to travel vast distances. Chicago and New York became epicenters of music as the Great Migration moved artists out of New Orleans. This movement opened doors to jazz, allowing great mobility across previously limiting factors such as space, time, and social differences.
During this time period, music became highly mobile, yet whether or not this liberation was more beneficial or detrimental varies greatly with circumstances. With the rise of sound and video recordings, performances could be enjoyed any distance from the original source, whether it be a physical distance, time difference, or social difference. Radio allowed for jazz to spread and become even more of a cultural phenomenon both nationally and internationally. Although recordings admittedly forced condensation of pieces onto the limited technology of the time (thus minimizing both the quality and duration of the piece), it allowed for both a greater audience and pool of other artists to listen to, benefiting jazz in many ways. Of course, there was also great exploitation accompanying this broadcasting. Mary Lou Williams writes with an offhanded tone about the grip certain figures held on the jazz scene; “I heard that Count Basie later worked for the same Dracula, and also had a slight misunderstanding. As a result, Basie had to work two weeks without pay.” It is clear that these “misunderstandings” were frequent and costly across the scene as artists would be taken advantage of by their business partners.
Video recordings such as soundies at the Cotton Club were also highly exploitive. In one titled Shine from 1932 soundie Rhapsody in Black and Blue, Louis Armstrong performs in shocking minstrelsy; dressed in jungle-fashioned clothing, Armstrong and cast sing and act out a stunningly racist soundie, before Armstrong plays the trumpet with an enthralling passion that seems serious and genuine in contrast to the mocking racism he had encompassed seconds earlier. The act of signifying is clear here as Armstrong both participates and actively subverts the act of minstrelsy in one fell swoop, making the impact incredibly powerful and moving. It is unclear to anyone other than Armstrong himself whether he is more signaling against the racist media or disrupting the caricature he has been playing.
Minstrelsy was far from uncommon in these soundies and the jazz scene in general. To find any real success, an artist would have to navigate these tricky waters. Even within songs themselves, in example “I’ve got rhythm”, astonishingly racist stereotypes and tropes are apparent. The visibility of this racism makes it all the more visible the degree to which racism did not simply have a grip on the music industry, but rather was within the roots.
During this time period of the Great Migration, there was a large influx of musicians to the cities of New York and Chicago, which were in turn growing bigger jazz scenes. However, looking at the mobility allowed for the music, it becomes more clear that these musicians were often not afforded the same freedom to easily cross distances, times, or social barriers. Too often would musicians anticipate easy success only to fail bitterly. Louis Armstrong was thriving in New Orleans, but even so refused to go north to Chicago until he was summoned by King Oliver, as he mentions so many before him had failed.
“I had made up my mind that I would not leave New Orleans unless the King had sent for me. I would not risk leaving for anyone else. I had seen too many of my pals leave home and come back in bad shape.”
Mary Lou Williams similarly struggled with the barriers restricting ability. Discussing the distaste for the TOBA system through which musicians would find work, she explains “the initials stand for Theater Owners’ Booking Association– or, to us who had to work it, ‘Tough on Black Artists’” Segregated facilities and Jim Crow made it incredibly difficult for Black artists to travel on these circuits, further restricting the artists while they would see their music spread internationally. This divide between the artists and their music would become more apparent and cause an array of different effects.
This movement was necessary for jazz and its artists to grow and develop, as it both promoted the music and increased the audience for musicians, and also widened the window of influence for musicians. However this newfound mobility was also capable of causing great damage. There was minstrelsy ingrained in performances and exploitation of artists. There was extreme sexism and racism in the treatment of artists. There was real danger facing the artists at many different turns.
While this new development and movement of jazz throughout places such as New York, Chicago, and Kansas City allowed for more growth and fame for many artists, the exploitation of artists was a very real threat. Aside from the glaring racism and minstrelsy artists were forced to endure, jazz’s growing popularity made the music and musicians vulnerable to an array of hazards. From skeevy managers to other artists who would buy and resell music with their own names, the jazz scene was rife with exploitation and theft at every turn.
The racism was everywhere and mixed with the predatory nature of artists and managers to create a dangerous environment. Minstrelsy such as that seen in many of Armstrong’s performances was essentially an expectation of black artists, giving their skill a secondary notice.
In the case of the International Sweethearts the treatment they faced as young black girls was abhorrent and traumatizing. The racism and sexism they encountered was rooted in their experience as a touring group of young (for the most part) black girls. Police presence was consistent, with the police often “trying to spot the white band members… It was a constant worry in the minds of the girls that, despite all their precautions, one of their number might be taken away at any time, not for any wrongdoing but simply because of her color.” In order to perform their music, they endured constant worrying and threats in combination with great acclaim and success for their performances.
The music eventually became more mobile than the artists themself. With this new technology, the music could travel more distances than the artists due to the pure nature of recordings, but the recordings’ detachment from the artists themselves also allowed them more freedom. In the case of the Black musicians, it is clear to see how restrained they continued to be, while their music was more freed. Although some, notably Armstrong, Ellington and Count Basie, managed to escape more than others, there were so many who were immobilized by the rules, codes, and norms of institutionalized racism.
The results of movement were as varied as the travels of music itself. Musicians were liable to find great acclaim and success, horrifying racism and mistreatment, devastating failure, and often a mix of all that mirrors America.
Sources:
Armstrong, L. (1996). Reading Jazz (1302296701 958370625 R. Gottlieb, Author). New York: Random House. (Satchmo, (1954))
Williams, ML. (1996). Reading Jazz (1302296701 958370625 R. Gottlieb, Author). New York: Random House. (Melody Maker, (1954))
McPartland, M. (1996). Reading Jazz (1302296701 958370625 R. Gottlieb, Author). New York: Random House. (All in Good Time, (1987))
Aubrey Scotto. A RHAPSODY IN BLACK AND BLUE. USA, 1932.
